Research on Various Period Beverages

Prepared by Orlando de Medici. You may also be interested in an overview of caudles, or a redaction of kvass.

Repeated Source

As this is the source of several recipes, the attribution is noted here to avoid repeating it excessively later.

An Anonymous Andalusian Cookbook of the Thirteenth Century

A translation by Charles Perry of the Arabic edition of Ambrosio Huici Miranda with the assistance of an English translation by Elise Fleming, Stephen Bloch, Habib ibn al-Andalusi and Janet Jinson of the Spanish translation by Ambrosio Huici Miranda, as published in A Collection of Medieval and Renaissance Cookbooks, Seventh Edition (1998), Volume II. (C) Charles Perry 1992

In the Andalusion cookbook, ratl is a measure by weight, equalling 468.75 grams, about a pound. One ratl is equal to 12 ûqiyas; one ûqiya is about 39 g.

Syrup of Pomegranates

Recipe (from Andalusian)

Take a ratl of sour pomegranates and a ratl of sweet pomegranates, and add their juice to two ratls of sugar, cook all this until it takes the consistency of syrup, and keep until needed. Its benefits: it is useful for fevers, and cuts the thirst, it benefits bilious fevers and lightens the body gently.

Research

Feb 02: I found others' redactions to call for an equal weight of pomegranate juice and sugar. I disagree, as 2 ratls of pomegranates will not yield two ratls of juice (reading research indicates a 2/3 yield is reasonable for many sorts of fruits with a good quality press). Also, I was unable to find sour or sweet pomegranates or their juice, and had to settle for 'pomegranate juice', which I presume to be the juice of sweet pomegranates.

Nov 02: Trader Joe's stopped carrying pomegranate juice, so I bought actual pomegranates. I briefly contemplated whether the weight of pomegranates referred to the fruit or the edible part, but the ratio of fruit to sugar made it clear that it was the latter.

Redaction

Feb 02: 1 qt pomegranate juice
3 lbs sugar

Combine and heat to a simmer. Skim off any scum that rises to the surface, and cook to a syrup (about 1 hour). Save until needed, then dilute with water to taste.

Nov 02: Pomegranates
Sugar

Separate the red juicy seed packets from the pomegranate pith, and weigh them. Press the seed packets for their juice. To the juice add sugar equal in weight to the seed packets before pressing. Heat to a simmer. Skim off any scum that rises to the surface, and cook to a syrup (about 1 hour). Save until needed, then dilute with water to taste.

Records of Account

Feb 02: $5 for a quart of pomegranate juice @ Trader Joe's, $1.50 for 3 lbs sugar = $6.50/recipe, about $0.93/cup of syrup.

Nov 02: $3.98 for two pomegranates, $0.75 for 1 1/2 lbs sugar = $4.73, about $1.46/cup of syrup.

Result

Feb 02: This yielded about 7 cups of syrup. We diluted this with three parts of cool water by volume, resulting in a strong pomegranate drink. Some people liked it at this strength, but more preferred to dilute it with additional water.

Nov 02: I started with 49 oz of pomegranates, which yielded 23 1/4 oz of seed packets. As I have no press, I extracted the juice by putting the seed packets in my blender on the lowest setting, and pressing in a sieve. This yielded 1 3/4 cups of juice, and about 3 1/4 cups of syrup. This syrup was served in a small cruet, and people poured some into their cups and added water. This proved somewhat difficult, as it was considerably thicker than the other syrups. More experience will reveal if this thickness comes from using fresh pomegranate juice or variation in the cooking time/temperature.

Reserve

The syrup can be reserved at room temperature for later use.

Oxymeli

Recipe

From Pliny the Elder, The Natural History of Pliny. Translated with Copious Notes and Illustrations (circa 400)

Vinegar even has been mixed with honey; nothing, in fact, has been left untried by man. To this mixture that name of oxymeli has been given: It is compounded of ten pounds of honey, five semi-sextarii of old vinegar, one pound of sea-salt, and five sextarii of rain-water. This is boiled gently till the mixture is bubbled in the pot some ten times, after which it is drawn off, and kept until old...

Research

I was dubious about the quantity of salt, as well as the final strength, as well as the phrase 'bubbled in the pot some ten times'. I valiantly pressed on and made it following the period recipe.

Redaction

4 lbs honey 2 cups white wine vinegar 6 oz sea salt 4 cups water [2/5 of original recipe.] Combine and heat to a simmer. Skim off any scum that rises to the surface and simmer for an hour. Save until needed, then dilute with water to taste.

Records of Account

$6 for honey @ Trader Joe's [mesquite], $1.69 for 17 fl oz white wine vinegar @ Stop and Shop Rte 28, $.40 for the salt @ Bread and Circus, total about $8, $0.84/cup of syrup, Feb 2002.

Result

This yielded about 9 1/2 cups of syrup. We diluted this with three parts cool water by volume. While some of the Gatorade-drinkers enjoyed it, I did not much -- the salt is the predominate taste by a good margin. I would like to do more research on medieval recipes for sekanjabin/oxymel which call for salt before trying this again. Perhaps the units were off in the source I used? Or perhaps I just need to sweat out more minerals before enjoying such a drink?

Reserve

The syrup can be reserved at room temperature for later use. I found it separated with a cloudy layer on top, but this did not affect the taste.

Syrup of Lemon

Recipe (from Andalusian)

Take lemon, after peeling its outer skin, press it and take a ratl of juice, and add as much of sugar. Cook it until it takes the form of a syrup. Its advantages are for the heat of bile; it cuts the thirst and binds the bowels.

Redaction

1 qt lemon juice 2 lbs sugar [Quantities scaled to 1 qt jar of lemon juice.] Combine and heat to a simmer. Skim off any scum that rises to the surface, and cook to a syrup (about 1 hour). Save until needed, then dilute with water to taste.

Records of Account

$1.59 for quart of lemon juice @ J Foodmaster, $1 for 2 lbs sugar = $2.59, $0.52/cup of syrup, Feb 2002.

Result

This yielded about 5 cups of syrup. We diluted this with four parts of cool water by volume, resulting in a strong lemon drink. Some people liked it at this strength, others preferred to dilute it with additional water.

Reserve

The syrup can be reserved at room temperature for later use. I found it separated with a cloudy layer on the top, but this did not affect the taste.

Syrup of Simple Sekanjabin (Oxymel)

Recipe (from Andalusian)

Take a ratl of strong vinegar and mix it with two ratls of sugar, and cook all this until it takes the form of a syrup. Drink an ûqiya of this with three of hot water when fasting: it is beneficial for fevers of jaundice, and calms jaundice and cute the thirst, since sikanjabin syrup is beneficial in phlegmatic fevers: make it with six ûqiyas of sour vinegar for a ratl of honey and it is admirable.

Research

There is general agreement that while only the basic vinegar and sugar-or-honey recipe is given in this cookbook, the use of additional ingredients (most commonly mint) result in acceptable variations on the 'simple' sekanjabin. Simmering the vinegar drives off some of the acid in the vinegar; others' research indicates that covering the pot or reducing the simmer time to less than half an hour would result in too sour a drink. I have not verified this. It is not clear what sort of vinegar would be more appropriate; I believe wine vinegar is most reasonable, but whether that should be red or white vinegar is an open question.

Redaction #1

2 cups white wine vinegar
2 lbs sugar

Combine and heat to a simmer. Skim any scum (there should be very little or none), and simmer for an hour until it cooks to a syrup. Bottle this and save it until needed, then dilute with water.

Result #1

This yielded about 4 1/4 cups of syrup. We diluted this with three parts cool water, and the general consensus was that it was too strong. We weakened it to four parts water to one part syrup, and it was palatable to some, though others wished it diluted further. We also diluted the syrup with four parts cool mint water, which we made by boiling mint in water and straining. As there was insufficient fresh mint, we also used dried mint, which unfortunately resulted in a less 'green' and more 'brown' coloration. But it was found to still be tasty, so no great harm done.

Records of Account #1

$1.69 for 17 fl oz white wine vinegar @ Stop and Shop Rte 28, $1.00 for sugarm, $2.69 total, $0.63/cup of syrup, Feb 2002.

Redaction #2

2 cups red wine vinegar
2 lbs sugar

Combine and heat to a simmer. Skim any scum (there should be very little or none), and simmer for an hour until it cooks to a syrup. Bottle this and save it until needed, then dilute with water.

Records of Account #2

$1.69 for 25 fl oz red wine vinegar = $1.08 for 16 fl oz, $1 for 2 lbs sugar = $2.08 = $0.52/cup of syrup, Feb 2002.

Result #2

This yielded about 4 cups of syrup. We diluted this with four parts cool rose-water to one part syrup, and it was palatable to some, though others wished it diluted further. The rose-water was made by taking dried rose petals, removing the white part at the bottom, putting them in a pot, pouring boiling water over them, leaving it overnight, then straining it and pressing the leaves in the sieve. This made a highly concentrated, richly-colored liquid, and was itself diluted with seven parts water to make the rose-water. The red wine vinegar also had a sharper taste than the white, but this may have been due to it being given less time to simmer.

Reaction

Sekanjabin is familiar to many, but there are unexplored variables in the recipe. I think it would be educational to make four batches of sekanjabin, two with white wine vinegar and two with red, and two with sugar and two with honey, and to draw off some of each immediately upon them becoming clear, after half an hour of simmering, and after an hour of simmering, and to taste test the resulting twelve syrups.

Reserve

The syrup can be reserved at room temperature for later use. The rosewater (from redaction #2) does not keep at room temperature.

I have found that sekanjabin syrup stored for long periods at cold temperatures can crystallize, in the manner of honey. Further experimentation shows that it can be dealt with in the same manner, that is, microwaving it, and is harmless.

Cold Mylke of Almondys

From An Ordinance Of Pottage: An Edition of the Fifteenth Century Culinary Recipes in Yale University's MS Beinecke 163, Constance Hieatt, editor

Do fayre watyr yn a pott; do thereto blaunch sigure or blake sigure, or hony claryfyd, so that hit be somdell doucet, & do a lytyll salt therto. Set hit on the fyre; when hit ys at boylyng scome hit clene; lett hit boyle well, then take hit of & lete hit kele. Then blaunch almondys; grynd hem & temper hem up with the same water ynto a thyke mylke, & poure therto a lytyll wyn, that hit have a lytyll savor therof.

Research

The recipe calls for water sugar, black sugar, or clarified honey. I went with white sugar as I had a good bit of that about the house, and it is less expensive, and it would have been prized in period.

Redaction

Feb 02: Note: I forgot to sugar the water before using the water to draw up the almond milk. Oops! So I rearranged it to first make the almond milk, then add the sugar, salt, and wine.

2 lbs almonds
5/8 cup white wine
water
salt
sugar

Take the almonds and blanch them. Put them in the food processor and blenderize them to a fine powder. Add water and process the mixture some more. Strain this and press the seive. Put the residue back in the processor, add repeat the process. When you have 3 quarts of strained liquid, you are done. Take the liquid, dissolve sugar in it to taste, add the wine, and some salt. I didn't measure the sugar and salt... the desired effect is 'somewhat' sweet, enough wine that one can just recognize the taste if one knows what to look for, and enough salt to give it a little more flavor, but not so much that there is a noticable salt taste.

Nov 02: I had the spare time to measure everything properly this time. I again first extracted the almond milk, then added the sugar, wine, and salt. I probably could have added more salt without introducing any 'saltiness'.

2 lbs blanched almonds
5/8 cup white wine
1/4 tsp salt
3/4 cup sugar
water

Take the almonds, put them in the food processor and blenderize them to a fine powder. [This may be stored in the freezer if you are doing this steps ahead of time.] Take a pound of the powder and put it in the mixer with 2 cups of water, and mix it. Put this in a sieve and wait patiently. Then put the powder back in the mixer, and add another 2 cups of water. Repeat until the water passes more swiftly through the almonds and the milk is getting thinner. In my experience (using an impressive hand blender that could get the almonds really fine) this was four passes (total of 2 quarts of water per pound of almonds). Take the almond milk, and add the sugar, wine, and salt, stir to dissolve. Serve chilled.

Records of Account

Feb 02: 2 lbs almonds $2.29/ea @ Trader Joe's. Other ingredients not measured.

Nov 02: $6.76 for almonds, $0.60 for wine, $0.20 for sugar. End cost is about $6.50/gallon.

Result

Feb 02: This is so tasty! Many people raved about it, and it was entirely consumed. Of course, it was only 3 quarts, so it wasn't too hard for them to finish it off. When I make this again for May Day, I will measure the salt and sugar, and get a target for the liquid, and perhaps see if I can find a way to increase the yield vs. residue.

Nov 02: Efforts to improve yield (by finely blending the almonds before, and extracting the milk in four stages) worked nicely. Yield was ~14 qts of almond milk, and ~15 qts of finished product. It was again quite popular.

Reserve

Almond milk can be refrigerated for at least several days, but cannot be kept at room temperature.

Reuse

The ground almonds can be reused. Adding honey, cream, and/or spices makes a tasty treat. It can be used in a cream-based pasta sauce, or added when making bread. All these have worked out well. The ground almonds can be refrigerated a considerable time. Ground almonds in broth with pepper sauce and soy sauce makes a nice soup.

Water

Research

Many researchers say that water was strictly a lower-class drink, that it was avoided by anyone who could afford better. My research does not bear out this view.

Luis Lobera de Avila, Banquete de Nobles Caballeros (1530), as translated by Lady Brighid ni Chiarain (Robin Carroll-Mann)

And because in Spain there are many good wines and good water and there is little need of beer and it is not customary, I will not enlarge on this material.

It remains to speak of water, because many gentlemen and lords drink it, so I will speak of its selection and benefits.

[...]

It is well manifest that water is cold and humid in nature and because of this, Galen, in the first tractate, De simplici medicina says that it is thickening and congealing. Thus, the best of the spring waters is that which has its origin or birth in the rising of the sun, and when it is highest and is most continuous and lightest and does not diminish in its heat, it is better. Even better is if it were from clear stones, without notable flavor or odor. And it is better if this is rainwater, well preserved, caught at the times of your choosing. So Diascorides showed in his first chapter, where he says that in all the illnesses for which we need to administer water, rainwater is the best of all. And this is shown by its being lighter and pleasanter to the taste, and quicker to digest and quicker to receive cold or heat into itself.

Giovanni Boccaccio, The Decameron (1350)

And when they descended to inspect the huge, sunlit courtyard, the cellars stocked with excellent wines, and the well containing abundant supplies of fresh, ice-cold water, they praised [their lodgings] even more.

Syrup of Carrots

Recipe (from Andalusian)

Take four ratls of carrots, after removing the nerves that are in the centers, and cook them in water to cover until their substance comes out. Then take the clear part of it and add it to three ratls of honey, cleaned of its foam. The bag: ... an ûqiya of cubebs, two ûqiyas each of ginger and long pepper, and half an ûqiya of cinnamon and flower of cloves. Cook until it takes the form of a syrup. Drink an ûqiya of this with hot water: it is beneficial in the lack of urine, increases desire, and dissolves phlegm, heats the kidneys admirably, and likewise the other parts of the body, God willing.

Research

This looked like a very interesting recipe, and I had never heard of anyone making it. The phrase 'after removing the nerves that are in the center' confused me at first. I have been told that some carrots, or perhaps some varieties of carrots, have a stringy, insipid xylem (core). If such carrots were prevalent at the time, this would explain the instruction (to remove the fibrous part at the center of the carrot). The carrots I buy at the supermarket have the tenderest portion in the core, so I omitted this instruction. Having no access to flower of cloves, I used the cloves themselves, and reduced the amount significantly.

Redaction

2 lbs carrots
1 1/2 lbs honey
1/2 oz cubebs
1 oz ginger
1 oz long pepper
1/2 oz cinnamon
6 cloves

Take the carrots, and slice them lengthwise into strips. Put them in a pot and cover with water, then simmer for two hours. Strain the liquid, and to the liquid add the honey. Place the spices in a bag of fine cheesecloth and place the bag in the pot. Bring to a simmer and skim any scum. Cook it down to a syrup, store until needed, then dilute with water.

Records of Account

Feb 02: $1.60 for carrots, $2.25 for honey @ Trader Joe's, $0.60 for spices, total $4.45, $1.27/cup of concentrate.

Nov 02: $1.20 for carrots, $3 for honey, $0.60 for spices, total $4.80, $1.07/cup of concentrate.

Result

Feb 02: This yielded 3 1/2 cups of concentrated liquid, though it was not sufficiently thick to label a syrup. As we wished people to be able to try this hot or cold, we served it concentrated, and invited them to dilute it as they saw fit.

Nov 02: Lacking the proper spices, I faked the spice mix considerably. Memo to self: make sure you have the spices before the night you need to make the drink! Yield was 4 1/2 cups of liquid/recipe. Served concentrated, and people served themselves, diluting with water to taste. I cut the carrots up fine, which worked well. I would have put less water over the carrots if I was measuring. This might affect our ability to store the syrup at room temperature, time will tell.

Reaction

Feb 02: This was well received. People found it interesting, strange, and tasty. It has a 'round', complex taste of carrots, honey, and spices.

Nov 02: Also judged tasty, this time it had a considerably 'sharper', more spicy taste.

Reserve

The syrup should be able to be reserved at room temperature for later use. At the concentrations I was ending up with, the syrup is too weak for that, and does eventually go bad at room temperature. Perhaps the liquid should be boiled down, or made more concentrated in the first place.

Reuse

The carrots could conceivably be used for the Carrot Paste recipe on the same page of the Andalusian cookbook, but perhaps they would be too thoroughly cooked to be of use there.

Tisane

Recipe

From Le Menagier de Paris (circa 1395)

Sweet Tisane

Take water and boil it, then add for each sixth of a gallon of water one good bowl of barley, and it does not it if still has the hulls, and get two parisis' worth of licorice, item, or figs, and boil it all until the barley bubbles; then let it be strained in two or three cloths, and put in each goblet a large amount of rock-sugar. This barley is good to feed to poultry to fatten them. Note that good licorice is the youngest, and when cut is a lively greenish colour, and if it is old it is more insipid and dead, and dry.

Recipe

Anthimus, De Observatio Ciborum, (circa 526)

Of Tisane

Tisane which is made of barley, if anyone knows how to make it, is good for well people and for those with a fever... Diluted with warm wine, a teaspoon of it well mixed should be sipped slowly on an empty stomach... We usually give this to these with a fever, not thick, but diluted with clear warm water. It is agreeable also during periods of fasting, in Lent, to take this with hot water by all means...

Research

I wanted people to be able to try this hot or cold, so I wanted to make it more concentrated, and allow them to dilute it with cold or hot water. Also, I thought some might like it more or less sweet, or even not sweetened at all, so I thought I would avoid sugar in the redaction, but serve it with a sugar-bowl handy.

Redaction

1 lb barley
4 qts water
4 oz figs

Take the barley and roast it in the oven at 350 degrees until golden brown. Take the figs and cut them in thirds. Put the barley and the figs in the water and boil them half an hour. Take the liquid and refrigerate it until needed, then dilute and sweeten to taste.

Records of Account

$.50 for barley, $2.29 for 12 oz figs @ Trader Joe's, $1.26 total for recipe.

Result

This yielded a concentrated liquid. As we wished people to be able to try this hot or cold, we served it concentrated, and invited them to dilute it as they saw fit.

Reaction

People were pleased to have tried something they may have heard of but never experienced before.

Reserve

The concentrate or the finished beverage must be refrigerated if it is to be kept.

Reuse

The barley is good to eat. The figs should be discarded.

Flemish Caudle

Recipe

From Le Viandier de Guillaume Tirel dit Taillevent, page 290, #92

Chaudeau Flament: Flemish Caudle. Set a little water to boil; then beat egg yolks, without the whites, mix them with white wine and pour gradually into your water when it has boiled and cooled a little; then boil it again, watching that it does not burn stirring.

Redaction

1/2 cup water
1/2 cup white wine
3 egg yolks
salt

Take the water and put it on the fire. Take the egg yolks and beat them. Add the wine to the egg yolks, and beat it some more. When the water boils, take it off the heat, and let it cool a bit, then add the wine mixture into the water, stirring it constantly with a whisk. Heat the combined mixture slowly, stirring constantly. When it starts to boil again, take off the heat, add a dash of salt, stir to dissolve the salt, and serve it forth.

Result

I beat the egg yolks with a hand blender. The result was admirable -- no lumps of any sort. The suggestion was made that a hand blender acheived results better than manual methods would have, and perhaps this would be a different drink if done by hand. We'll try it differently later.

Reaction

The taste of hot wine thickened with eggs is strange to the palate, warm and filling.

Reserve

It is conceivable that reheating would be fine, but caudle is designed for immediate consumption, in my opinion.

Cawdelle de Almaunde

Recipe

From Two Fifteenth Century Cookery-Books, Harleian MS. 279 (ab. 1430), p. 16, # 51.

Cawdelle de Almaunde. Take Raw Almaundys, & grynde hem, an temper hem up with gode ale, and a lytil Water, and draw it thorw a straynoure in-to a fayre potte, & late it boyle a while: & caste ther-to Safroun, Sugre, and Salt, & than serue it forth al hotte in maner of potage.

Caudale

Recipe

From Two Fifteenth Century Cookery-Books, Laud MS. 553, p. 113.

Caudele. Nym eyren, & sweng wel to-gedere / chauf ale & do therto / lie it with amydon, do therto a porcion of sugur, or a perty of hony, & a perti of safron); boille hit, & 3if hit forth.

Research

The order of events is unclear (which elements of beaten eggs, ale, and almonds are combined & heated in what order). I did not have unhopped ale at hand, but have heard that bringing beer to a boil destroys the hops, so deliberately incorporating that.

Redaction

3 eggs
1 12-oz beer
3/4 cup ground blanched almonds
1/4 cup honey
a few threads of saffron

Crush the threads of saffron and stand them in a bit of water. Take the beer and the almonds, and put them in a pot. Heat this up to boiling, and reduce to simmer. Simmer some five minutes. Take the eggs and beat them. Take the beer from the fire and cool to 150 degrees, then add the eggs in a thin strem, stirring constantly. Put the beer on the fire, add the honey and saffron with its water, and slowly bring it to a boil, stirring constantly. Serve it forth.

Result

I beat the eggs by hand with a whisk, and I was stirring constantly with a whisk, which could not reach all corners of the pot. The corners I could not reach garnered a thick cooked egg nature. The almonds went into suspension as the eggs were so thick.

Reaction

A disappointment. Perhaps when I try this again, I will use a better stirring method, or remove the almonds before adding the eggs.

Panaka

Research

No extent period recipes are known, though what documentation I can find indicates that a drink called panaka would likely involved most of the following attributes: having some fruit juice, especially lime; being sweetened with jaggery (an unrefined brown sugar made from palm sap); being lightly spiced, especially with cardamom; and not being cooked. I came up with the following recipe by a bit of trail and error. Note that jaggery may be found at Indian groceries.

Redaction

10 quarts of water
1 quart of lime juice
1 kg of jaggery
cardamom

Combine all ingredients except the cardamom, and allow the jaggery to dissolve completely. There may be a thin scum, which you should remove by dragging a paper towel across the surface. Pour the panaka into a different container so that any impurities in the jaggery which settled out may be removed. Add cardamom to taste.

Result

The filtering steps are very important for a good final appearance. The taste is somewhat sweet, somewhat sour, and somewhat strange/exotic. It was a good success, though some people found it too weird for their tastes. The strangeness is avoided in some modern recipes by substituting brown sugar, which I would not recommend, on the basis of being too inauthentic.

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Last updated 18-Nov-2002.